“The study of the Mamluks under the Seljuks is of pivotal significance, because those Mamluks formed the essential connecting link between their predecessors in the Abbasid Caliphate and their successors in the Sultanates of the Zangids, the Ayyubids and the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria on the one hand, and in the Sultanate of the Ottomans on the other.”

The Mamlūks of the Seljuks: Islam's Military Might at the Crossroads by David Ayalon (Cambridge University Press)

P.S. This article may contain spoilers for watchers of various Turkish historical series like Dirilis Ertugrul, Kurulus Osman, Uyanis Buyuk Selcuklu, Alparslan Buyuk Selcuklu, Bozkir Arslani Celaleddin (Mendirman Jaloliddin), etc.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

• Who were the Mamluks?

• Dynasties with mamluk origins

  • Tulunids

  • Ikhshidids

  • Ghaznavids

  • Khwarezmians

  • Delhi (Mamluk) Sultanate

  • Mamluk Dynasty of Iraq/Mesopotamia (Dynasty of Hasan Pasha)

  • Ottoman Mamluk rulers of Acre (Palestine)

• The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt & Syria:

  • Bahri Mamluks

  • Burji Mamluks

• Who was Mamluk Sultan Baybars (Baibars)?

• The Mamluks, Sultan Baybars & Dirilis Ertugrul

Who were the Mamluks?

Mamluk (also transliterated as Mameluke, mamluq, mamluke, mameluk, mameluke, mamaluke or marmeluke) is a term most commonly referring either to slave soldiers, freed slaves, Muslim converts assigned to military and administrative duties, and Muslim rulers of slave origin (most prominent of which is the Mamluk Dynasty of Egypt & Syria which repelled and saved the Muslim world from the scourge of the Mongols).

The Mamluks are not actually depicted in Dirilis Ertugrul but there are mentions of them in Season 5 and specifically the then Mamluk Sultan of Egypt & Syria: Al-Malik Al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baibars al-Bunduqdari or more simply known as Baybars/Baibars. Ertugrul Bey at the end of Season 5 mentions obtaining their support (as well as the Muslim Mongol military commander and ruler of the Golden Horde, Berke Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan) at the end of Season 4) in order to defeat the Mongol Ilkhanate under Hulagu Khan (another grandson of Genghis Khan) due to their impending invasion of Anatolia (Sultan Baybars and Berke Khan did indeed work together but any involvement from Ertugrul is highly speculative).

Carl F. Petry - in his book titled “The Mamluk Sultanate: A History” - writes that the term “Mamluk” itself is a passive participle of the Arabic root ‘mim-lam-kaaf’ (to own/possess) and literally means “one owned”. In a military context, the term referred to a slave who was trained specifically for, and whose responsibility was, martial duties.

In the book titled “Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260-1281” by Reuven Amitai-Preiss, the terms “Mamluk” and “Mamluks” with capital letters tends to specifically refer to the Mamluk Sultanate established in Egypt in 1250 CE whilst those terms in common letters refers to military slaves in a general sense.

(It’s also important to recognise that the term “slave” here does not have the same connotation as to how we popularly understand slavery, etc from the European Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.)

Dr. Kallie Szczepanski writes that the mamluks were a class of warrior-enslaved people, mostly of Turkic or Caucasian (Circassians, Abkhazians, etc) ethnicity, who served between the 9th and 19th century in the Islamic world. He further states that despite their origins as enslaved people, the mamluks often had higher social standing than ‘free-born’ people.

The aforementioned Carl F. Petry (in his book “The Mamluk Sultanate: A History”) argues that mamluks ranged from various backgrounds and seeing them just through the prism of their skin colour (i.e white) would be incorrect and simplistic. Having said that, following the Muslim control over much of western Central Asia, Turkic tribal groups made up a significant number of the mamluk institution in its formative phases.

In fact, individual rulers of Mamluk background reigned in various countries, including the famous Mahmud of Ghazni in modern-day Afghanistan and India, and every ruler of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria (1250-1517 CE).

The mamluks were also utilised by various dynasties (particularly in a military capacity) including the Abbasid Caliphate, the Oghuz Turkic Zengid Dynasty; the Kurdish Ayyubid Dynasty; the Oghuz Turkic Seljuk Dynasty & the Ottoman Caliphate.

Dynasties with mamluk origins

Tulunids (868–905 CE):

The Tulunid dynasty (al-ṭūlūnīūn) was founded and named after the Abbasid Turkic general and governor of Egypt - Ahmad ibn Tulun - in the year 868 CE, who formed the first ever independent state in Egypt (as well as parts of Syria) since the Ptolemaic dynasty (around 898 years prior); the Ptolemaic dynasty was the last dynasty of Ancient Egypt and were a Macedonian Greek royal family who ruled the Ancient Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, which was founded by Ptolemy I Soter - a companion of Alexander the Great - in 305 BC/BCE, and ended with the rule of the popular Queen Cleopatra of Egypt in 30 BC/BCE.

Ahmad ibn Tulun was himself was said to be born in Baghdad on the 20th of September, 835 CE (23 Ramadan, 220 AH). According to Matthew S. Gordon in his book, “The Breaking of a Thousand Swords: A History of the Turkish Military of Samarra”, Ahmad’s father Tulun was said to be a Turk from the region known to the Arabs as Tagharghar or in Turkic, Toghuz-oghuz or Toghuzghuz; this region by medieval Arab historians is attributed to the Uighur Federation or Uyghur Khanate/Uighur Khanate.

The Tulunids were the first state/dynasty of Turkic mamluk origins and reigned from 868 to 905 CE with nominal autonomy, until the Abbasid Caliphate brought their domains back into Abbasid control.

They established in their own capital in Egypt called Al Qata’i, moving away from the previous Abbasid capital of Al-Askar; the Abbasids themselves moved the capital of Egypt from Fustat to Al-Askar after the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate (Fustat was initially made the capital of Egypt after the Muslim opening of Egypt under the command of the companion of the Prophet Muhammad - Amr ibn al-As - during the reign of Umar ibn al Khattab {Khilafah ar-Rashidah/Rightly Guided Caliphs}).

All three areas of Fustat, Al-Askar and Al-Qata’i were incorporated into what became known as Cairo in 969 CE, after the Fatimid conquest of Egypt.

Pictured below is the Ahmad ibn Tulun Mosque constructed between the years 876-879 CE. The mosque was meant to serve as the main congregational mosque in the new Tulunid capital of Al Qata’i, and is the oldest mosque/masjid in Egypt and one of the oldest in all of Africa.

Its architectural style is that of Samarra (Iraq/Mesopotamia) and very closely resembles the Great Mosque of Samarra constructed by the Abbasids between the years 847-861 CE.

Ikhshidids (935–969 CE):

The Ikhshidid Dynasty or Ikhshidids (al-Ikhshīdīyūn) were the second (Sunni) dynasty of Turkic mamluk origins, and like the Tulunids before them, also ruled Egypt (as well as Syria & the Hejaz). In fact, around 30 years following the retaking of Egypt by the Abbasid Caliphate from the Tulunids (in 905 CE), the Ikhshidid Dynasty ruled Egypt autonomously though in the name of the Abbasids from 935 CE until 969 CE, when the Shia Fatimid Dynasty conquered Egypt.

Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Tughj ibn Juff ibn Yiltakin ibn Furan ibn Furi ibn Khaqan or more simply known as Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid - similar to Ahmad ibn Tulun before him - was a Turkic Abbasid commander and governor. His father Tughj ibn Juff served both the Abbasids and the Tulunids, and he acquired his military and administrative experience alongside his father.

Like Ahmad ibn Tulun, Muhammad ibn Tughj was also born in Baghdad though he grew up in Syria. Prior to being appointed as the governor of Egypt in 935 CE, Ibn Tughj had also held the position of governor in Damascus (Shaam).

The Ikhshidids were founded in a time of chaos for the Abbasids with the Caliphate becoming increasingly decentralised due to events following what was known as the Anarchy at Samarra (861-870 CE).

Upon being appointed as governor, Muhammad ibn Tughj had to deal with war/possibility of war with multiple factions including the Fatimids; he managed to bring about a high-level of stability to Egypt in the early years of his reign and even managed to repel the Fatimids with victory via his brother Ubaydullah ibn Tughj.

In the paper titled “The Career of Muhammad Ibn Tughj Al-Ikhshid, a Tenth-Century Governor of Egypt” by Jere L. Bacharach, Muhammad ibn Tughj after requesting, received in July 939 CE/Ramadan 327 AH the title of al-Ikhshid from the Abbasid Caliph Al-Radi Billah, which means “King of the Farghanians”.

According to C.E Bosworth in the “Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second Edition)”, the title of al-Ikhshid or “King of the Farghanians” was the title given to local Persian rulers of Sogdia/Soghdia and Farghana/Ferghana in the pre-Islamic and early Islamic period; Muhammad ibn Tughj through his grandfather Juff was said to have had Farghanian ancestry.

Ghaznavids (977–1186 CE):

The Ghaznavids/Ghaznavid Dynasty (Ġaznaviyān) were a Persian-influenced Turkic mamluk dynasty who at their peak ruled much of modern-day Iran, Afghanistan, Transoxiana (covers modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan) and some northern parts of the Indian subcontinent from the late 10th century (977 CE) until the late 12th century (1186 CE).

The Ghaznavid Empire was founded by Abu Mansur Sabuktigin or simply Sabuktigin (also spelled as Sabuktagin, Sabuktakin, Sebüktegin and Sebük Tigin) and he ruled from 977 CE to 997 CE.

He founded the Ghaznavids after he ascended to the rule of Ghazna (in modern Afghanistan) around 14 years after the death of his father-in-law: Alptigin (Alptegin/Alp-Tegin), formerly the commander-in-chief of the army of the (Sunni) Persian Samanid Empire (in Khorasan) as well as the Governor of Ghazna for the Samanids (between 962 and 963 CE).

Both Alptegin and Sabuktigin still recognised Samanid autonomy over Ghazna, despite the latter despite founding the Ghaznavid Empire; it was not until the rule of Sabuktigin’s son - Mahmud of Ghazni/Mahmud I of Ghazna/Mahmud Ghaznavi/Mahmud ibn Sebuktigin - (from 999 to 1030 CE) that the Ghaznavids started exercising their own decisions and became independent of the Samanid dynasty, who at this time were nearing their demise.

Mahmud of Ghazni (referred to as such since he was born in Ghazni/Ghaznin/Ghazna, modern-day central Afghanistan) prior to being the Ghaznavid ruler was an Emir/Governor in Khorasan under the aforementioned Samanid Empire, and was referred to as “Sayf ad-Dawla” or “Sword of the State”.

After his father’s death, he ascended to the Ghaznavid throne at the age of 27 and was the first Ghaznavid ruler to have the title of “Sultan” (Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni), simultaneously indicating the extent of his power as well as his pledge of allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate (The Ghaznavids like many other (Sunni) Muslim dynasties pledged allegiance to the Abbasids).

According to Joseph W. Meri in “Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1”, under Sultan Mahmud’s reign, his capital of Ghazna almost rivalled the Abbasid capital of Baghdad as it became a significant cultural, economic & intellectual hub in the Muslim-majority world and even attracted renowned individuals like Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (Al-Biruni) and Abul-Qasem Ferdowsi Tusi (Ferdowsi).

Khwarezmians (1077–1231 CE):

The Khwarazmian Dynasty/Anushtegin Dynasty (Khwārazmshāhiyān) was a(nother) Persian-influenced Turkic Sunni Muslim dynasty of mamluk origins that ruled large parts of present-day Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iran in the approximate period of 1077 to 1231 CE, first as vassals of the Seljuq Dynasty and the Qara-Khitan/Kara-Khitan Khanate, and thereafter as independent rulers, up until the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia in the 13th century CE.

The Khwarezmian Empire/Khwarezm-Shah Dynasty was founded by Anushtegin Gharchai or just Anushtegin, a (Turkic) commander of the Seljuks. Anuştegin (also known as Nūštekīn Gharcha) was formerly a slave/servant of the leaders of the region known as Gharchistan/Gharjistan (hence where “Gharchai/Gharcha” comes from); interestingly enough, the future Mamluk Sultan of Egypt and Syria - Saif ad-Din Qutuz/Qutuz - also descends from Anushtegin.

Moroever, according to Jonathan L. Lee in the book titled "Ancient Supremacy": Bukhara, Afghanistan, and the Battle for Balkh, 1731-1901”, defining the region Gharchistan is difficult.

The region lays south of, and adjacent to, Ghuzgan (in modern-day Afghanistan) whilst it lays north of Ghor (also in modern-day Afghanistan) and was the name used to describe the region which encompassed the feeder streams of the Herat River/Hari River (in modern-day Afghanistan).

The 14th century historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in the Oğuzname stated that, "Similarly, the most distant ancestor of Sultan Muhammad Khwarazmshah (Ala ad-Din Muhammad II) was Nushtekin Gharcha, who was a descendant of the Begdili tribe of the Oghuz family". On the other hand, the Turkish historian İbrahim Kafesoğlu believes Anushtegin Gharchai was either of Khalaj or Cigil Turkic origin, while the historian Z. V. Togan states he was of Qipchaq, Qanḡlï or Uighur origin.

(Sources: C.E Bosworth in "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000-1217)" AND John Andrew Boyle in The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol.5, The Saljuq and Mongol Period. Cambridge University Press).

From this, we see there are differences of opinion as to the actual background of Anush Tigin and he may have belonged to either the Begdili Tribe of Oghuz Turks or to the Chigil, Khalaj, Qipchaq, Qangly, or Uyghur Turks.

Anushtegin who was said to be a slave/servant to the rulers of Gharchistan was later sold to the Seljuks and specifically to a Seljuk officer by the name of Gumus-Tegin Bilge Beg.

Anushtegin was said to have been put in command together with Gumushtegin Bilge Beg - in 1073 CE by the Great Seljuk Sultan Malik-Shah I (son of Sultan Alp Arslan), with the responsibility to retake territory in the north of Greater Khorasan that had been taken by the Ghaznavids.

He was subsequently made the sultan's tasht-dar (Persian word meaning "keeper of the royal vessels"), and, as the revenues from Khwarezm were used to pay for the expenses incurred by this position, he was made governor of the province (or Shihna of Khwarezm) in 1077 CE (a position he held until his death in 1097 CE).

The details of his tenure as governor are unclear, but in the same year of his death (1097 CE), the post was briefly held by Ekinchi bin Qochqar on the orders of the Seljuk Sultan Barkiyaruq (son of Sultan Malik-Shah I and grandson of Sultan Alp Arslan) before being transferred to Anushtegin’s son, Muhammad I or Qutb-ad-Din Muhammad: the first from Anushtegin’s bloodline to hold this position as well as the first “Shah of Khwarezm”, and someone who was loyal to the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar/Sencer (son of Sultan Malik-Shah I).

The Khwarazmian Dynasty was ended in the 13th century with the conquest of Khwarezm by the Mongols; the final Khwarazmian ruler was Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu/ Manguberdi ibn Muhammad/Manguberdi/Mangubarni, also known as Jalal ad-Din Khwarazmshah, and his life has been dramatised in another series produced by Mehmed Bozdag (producer of Dirilis Ertugrul) titled “Mendirman Jaloliddin/Bozkir Arslani Celaleddin” (produced in Turkish but also dubbed in Uzbek).

Delhi Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290 CE):

The Delhi Sultanate/Sultanate of Delhi was ruled sequentially by five unrelated dynasties between the years 1206 and 1526 CE, and they include the Mamluks of Delhi/Delhi Mamluk Sultanate (Māmālīk al-ʾHīnd/Māmālīk al-Dīlhī) (1206–1290 CE); the Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320 CE); the Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 CE); the Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 CE), and the Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526 CE).

The Delhi Sultanate across all five dynasties managed to cover parts of modern India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and some parts of modern southern Nepal (these lands comprised what was known as Hindustan/Hindoostan — See here for more).

The Delhi Mamluk Sultanate/Dynasty was founded by Qutb ud-Din Aibak: the Turkic Central Asian mamluk commander who served the Ghurid/Ghorid dynasty (Dudmân-e Ğurīyân/Šansabānī) - a dynasty with Persian origins from the Ghor region of modern Afghanistan.

The people of Ghor were said to be Buddhists who later converted to Islam after the region came under the rule of the Ghaznavid Dynasty during the reign of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna.

The Ghurid Dynasty itself spanned across many regions at their zenith. It encompassed Khorasan in the west and reached modern-day northern India as far as Bengal in the east. Their first capital was Firozkoh in Ghor itself, which was later replaced by Herat and finally Ghazna (all cities in modern-day Afghanistan).

The Ghurids were succeeded in Khorasan and Persia by the the Khwarazmian Dynasty and in modern-day northern India by the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.

During the reign of Ghurid Sultan Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori/Muhammad of Ghor (born as Shihab ad-Din), Qutb ad-Din Aibak was tasked with looking after the territories of the Ghorid dynasty within the Indian subcontinent/Hindustan; Qutb ad-Din further expanded the Ghorid state by taking territories within modern-day northern India.

With the death of Sultan Muhammad of Ghor and having no sons to take over from him, the Ghurid dynasty ended up being divided into various small sultanates; Qutb ad-Din nominally recognised the rule of Sultan Muhammad’s successor and nephew (Giyath ad-Din Muhammad) whilst Qutb ad-Din was recognised as the (independent) ruler of Hindustan/Hind, and this was the beginnings of the Mamluk Dynasty of Delhi (1206 CE).

It was not until the rule of the 3rd Mamluk Delhi Sultan Shams ud-Din Iltutmish though, that the Delhi Mamluk Sultanate had its official foray into Delhi (modern-day India), as he was the first of the rulers of the Mamluk Sultanate of Hind and the first ever Muslim ruler to actually rule from Delhi; Qutb ad-Din himself and his successor Aram Shah ruled from Lahore (modern-day Pakistan).

The Delhi Mamluk Sultanate was immensely strengthened during the reign of Iltutmish and it lasted all the way to 1290 CE until the Khilji dynasty began their reign, becoming the second dynasty to ruler over the ‘Delhi Sultanate’.

Like many other Muslim dynasties at the time, Iltutmish’s rule was ultimately recognised by the Abbasid Caliphate (and its then Caliph Al-Mustansir: penultimate Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad) in the year 1228 CE.

The Mamluk Dynasty of Iraq/Mesopotamia (1704–1831 CE):

The Mamluk Dynasty of Iraq/Mesopotamia (Mamālīk al-ʻIrāq) was a dynasty of Caucasian Georgian mamluk origin which ruled over Iraq in the 18th and early 19th centuries.

Eyalets, also known as beylerbeyliks or pashaliks, were primary administrative divisions of the Uthmani Khilafah (Ottoman Caliphate). The Mamluk Dynasty of Iraq was founded by Hasan Pasha - the Ottoman Georgian governor - and it ruled over the eyalets of Baghdad, Basra & Shahrizor (Eyalet of Shahrizor covered parts of present-day Iraqi Kurdistan) between the years 1704 CE to 1831 CE.

The Mamluk Dynasty of Iraq/Mesopotamia had a total of 10 rulers and as mentioned above, began with the governorship of Hasan Pasha (r. 1704-1723 CE) and ended over a century later under the reign of Dawud Pasha (r. 1816-1831 CE).

Hasan Pasha's son and successor - Ahmad Pasha (r. 1723 to 1747 CE) - continued his father’s policy of recruiting mamluks and promoting them to key administrative and military positions.

Moroever, both Hasan & his son Ahmad were looked at positively by the Ottoman Sublime Porte due to their efforts in curbing troublesome (Arab & Kurdish) tribes as well as defending Iraq militarily from both the Shia Safavid Dynasty and an offshoot so to speak of the Safavids: the Afsharids of Persia (founded by the former Safavid military commander Nader Khan {later Nader Shah} who deposed the final Safavid Ruler Abbas III, and whose dynasty was said to have reached a similar extent of power dating back all the way to the Sasanian Empire {224 to 651 CE}).

By 1750 CE, Sulayman Abu Layla (son-in-law & successor of Ahmad Pasha) had secured his power and established his presence at the ultimate ruler of Baghdad and had been recognized by the Ottoman Porte as the (official) first Mamluk Pasha of Iraq.

The relationship between the Mamluks of Iraq and the Ottomans wasn’t always so straightforward though as with their increase in power and further establishing themselves, the Iraqi Mamluks seeked to gain more autonomy from the Ottoman central government; they encouraged foreign trade into their provinces and even gave permission to the controversial British East India Company (BEIC).

On the other hand, the Iraqi Mamluks failed to establish a proper system of succession and so unsurprisingly it led to internal struggles for power and formation of rival Mamluk households.

This also led to Ottoman attempts in obtaining direct control of Iraq and deposing the Mamluks of Iraq/Mesopotamia. The fall of the Mamluks of Iraq and the governorship of the new Ottoman Governor of Iraq - Ali Ridha Pasha/Ali Rıza Pasha - heralded the period of direct Ottoman control over much of Iraq (this lasted until the Ottomans lost control of Iraq to the British Empire during WW1/World War 1).

Even after the fall of the Mamluks of Iraq, Ali Ridha Pasha still had to contend with the fact that much of the influential persons in Iraq were from former mamluk households, and so integrated them into the various administrative positions of his governorship. He even went on to marry the daughter of the former Ottoman Mamluk Governor of Iraq: Sulayman Pasha the Little (r. 1807 to 1810 CE).

Ottoman Mamluk rulers of Acre (1805-1832 CE):

The Mamluks of Acre commenced with an individual by the name of Sulayman Pasha al-Adil, who was said to be born in around the 1760s CE and was said to be of Georgian ancestry. He was the slave soldier/mamluk of Jazzar Pasha or Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, who was the then Acre-based Ottoman Governor of the Sidon Eyalet (reigning between 1776 CE to 1804 CE).

The Eyalet of Sidon (Eyālet-i Ṣaydā) was an eyalet/beylerbeylik of the Ottoman Caliphate. In the 19th century CE, the eyalet extended from the border with Egypt to the Bay of Kisrawan, including parts of modern Palestine and Lebanon.

Depending on the location of its capital, it was also known as the Eyalet of Beirut or Eyalet of Akka/Acre.

Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar was said to be of Bosniak/Bosnian origins and gained the unfortunate epithet of al-Jazzar or the Butcher for his deadly ambush of Bedouin tribesmen who had killed one of his leaders/masters in a Bedouin raid. Prior to that, he was known as Ahmad al-Busnawi or Ahmad the Bosnian.

Ahmad Pasha prior to his rise as Ottoman Governor, had served mamluk officials in Egypt. He also had simultaneous reigns (alongside his governorship of the Sidon Eyalet) as Ottoman Governor of the Damascus Eyalet in 1785–1786, 1790–1795, 1798–1799, and 1803–1804 CE.

Ahmad Jazzar Pasha, on behalf of the Ottoman Sultanate, was also known for his famous victory over Napoleon Bonaparte at the Siege of Acre in 1799 CE.

The aforementioned Sulayman Pasha was treated very favourably by Jazzar Pasha and was lobbied by the latter for the position of Ottoman Governor of Egypt. Later, Sulayman ended up in the inner circle of Jazzar Pasha.

There was a moment of significant tension between them, with Sulayman and another of Jazzar’s mamluks - Salim Pasha al-Saghir - who intended to rebel against Jazzar Pasha.

Jazzar Pasha and Sulayman Pasha later made up and with Jazzar’s passing, the Ottomans appointed Ibrahim Pasha Qataraghasi as Jazzar's replacement as the Governor of Sidon and Damascus. Ibrahim as Jazzar’s replacement, laid a siege on Acre which had been taken over in opposition to the Ottoman Sublime Porte, by an officer known as Isma’il (who was imprisoned by Jazzar).

With the impending arrival of the Hajj (January 1805 CE), he withdrew and left Sulayman in charge due to his responsibilities for the Hajj Caravan. The Osmanlis (Ottomans) later then appointed Sulayman as Governor of the Sidon Eyalet, and he resumed the siege efforts against Ismail to which he was successful.

This successful siege is the origins of what can be termed as the Mamluks of Acre; in fact, Sulayman in one of his first actions as Governor, re-established much of the mamluk household of his mentor Jazzar Pasha, which ironically had disintegrated with the rebellion he himself had an important role in instigating.

Moreover, with his success in the siege, his reputation grew with the Ottoman Sublime Porte. He was eventually also given the authority of much of what is modern south-western Palestine (the cities of Gaza {Gazza}, Jaffa {Yafa} and Jerusalem {Al Quds}).

In the book, “The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society”, Sulayman al-Adil was said to have presided over the last ever functioning mamluk system.

With the death of Sulayman and the end of his reign in 1809 CE, Abdullah Pasha ibn Ali or simply Abdullah Pasha, succeeded him and also ruled from the city of Acre (like his predecessors Jazzar Pasha and Sulayman Pasha), whilst continuing the “Mamluks of Acre”.

He would rule from 1809 to 1831/1832 CE when he was defeated by Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt, and with his fall meant the end of the final ever mamluk dynasty in history.

Pictured below is the Jazzar Mosque/Masjid al-Jazzar but also goes by the names of “The White Mosque” or Masjid al Anwar/The Great Mosque of Lights. It is located inside the walls of the old city of Acre (Palestine) and overlooking the Eastern Mediterranean Sea.

It was commissioned by Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar in the year 1781 CE and completed the following year. Its architectural design takes significant influence from Ottoman masajid/mosques in Istanbul, alongside a mixture of Eastern Roman/Byzantine and Persian influences.

Within the masjid compound is also housed the tombs of Ahmad Pasha; his successor Sulayman Pasha and some of Sulayman’s relatives.

Who were the Mamluks of Egypt & Syria?

The most famous of all mamluk dynasties is the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt & Syria (Salṭanat al-Mamālīk), also known as the “Dawlat al-Atrāk” or “Turkic State” and “Dawlat al-Jarākisa or the “Circassian State”.

This dynasty were the protectorates of the Abbasid Caliphs for over 2 centuries (after the Mongol sacking of Baghdad in 1258 CE), whereby the Abbasid Caliphs were symbolic figures under the Mamluks (Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo), from the year 1261 CE until the dynasty (then a shadow of their former selves) fell to the Ottomans in 1516/1517 CE.

They also served the Muslim world by defeating the Mongols - who were then on route to approaching the noble cities of Makkah, Madinah & Jerusalem - at the famous Battle of Ain Jalut/Ayn Jalut on 3rd September 1260 CE (25 Ramadan 658 AH); the series Dirilis Ertugrul is set in the time period just before this battle occurs and we see Ertugrul contemplating working with the Mamluk Sultan Baybars (though this is fictional).

The Mamluk State, with its capital city of Cairo, can be separated between two dynasties: (1) The Bahri Dynasty/Bahriyya Mamluks (al-Mamalik al-Baḥariyya) and, (2) Burji Dynasty/Circassian Mamluks (al-Mamalik al-Sherkes).

The Mamluks effectively inherited power from the Ayyubids and did not significantly alter the legal & administrative processes and systems that they inherited. The Mamluk territorial domains were also virtually the same as that of the Ayyubids (Egypt, the Levant/Shaam and the Hejaz (western Arabia)). Where they differed though was that the Mamluk State was a more centralised and unitary state whereas the Ayyubids tended to divide their territories amongst members of the Ayyubid family (a system of collective sovereignty).

The Bahri Dynasty/Bahriyya Mamluks (1250-1382 CE):

The Bahri Dynasty (al-Mamalik al-Baḥariyya) of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt & Syria was said to have reigned from the Mamluk State’s inception in 1250 CE to the year 1382 CE (132 years).

It was under this period/dynasty of the Mamluks of Egypt & Shaam, that the Muslims were able to overcome the scourge of the Mongols (the aforementioned Battle of Ain Jalut), and it is also this dynastic period that is being referred to in Dirilis Ertugrul (and specifically, Sultan Baybars, as I mentioned above).

From their line of Sultans, Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun was the longest reigning Sultan with three (3) separate reigns: 1293-1294 CE; 1299-1309 CE and 1310-1341 CE.

Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad also fought in battles against the Mongol Ilkhanate/Mongol Ilkhanids, then under the reign of Ghazan Khan who was said to have become Muslim and who was rebuked in person by the famous scholar Ibn Taymiyyah (rahimullah) for launching invasions on Muslim territories.

Ghazan Khan was the great-grandson of Hulagu Khan, the founder of the aforementioned Mongol Ilkhanate (a khanate within the Mongol Empire) and the grandson of Genghis Khan (Chingiz Khan). Hulagu was the one responsible for the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258 CE and the end of the Abbasid Caliphate (of Baghdad). Ghazan was said to have accepted Islam in 1295 CE.

In 1303 CE, the Mongol Ilkhanids under Ghazan and the Mamluks of Egypt & Shaam under An-Nasir Din Muhammad fought at was known as the Battle of Marj al Saffar, where the Mongols were decisively defeated and which put an end to the Mongol expansion into the Levant (Shaam).

These Bahriyya mamluks were brought over from the Kipchak/Qipchaq steppes north of the Black Sea to serve the Ayyubid Dynasty but eventually rose all the way to be the rulers themselves. The Kipchak/Cuman Turks were a Turkic nomadic people and confederation that existed in the Middle Ages, inhabiting parts of the Eurasian Steppe (said to have stretched through modern-day Hungary; Bulgaria; Romania; Moldova and Transnistria (breakaway state from Moldova); Ukraine; Western Russia; Siberia; Kazakhstan; East Turkestan (modern-day Chinese Xinjiang); Mongolia and Manchuria (encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer Manchuria)).

The Bahriyya were a subset of what was known as the Salihiyya in the Ayyubid Dynasty; the Salihiyya were essentially royal mamluks who made up the personal guard of the Ayyubid Sultan al-Malik al-Salih Ayyub (reigned 1240-1249 CE), the nephew of the famous Salahuddin al-Ayyubi. From the Salihiyya you have what were elite corps of several hundred of selected horsemen known as the Bahriyya (Source: A History of the Islamic World, 600-1800 by Jo Van Steenbergen).

Their name "Bahriyya" means “of the river”, referring to the location of their original settlement on Al-Rawdah Island/Roda Island (Jazīrat ar-Rawdah): an island located on the Nile River in Cairo. The Bahriyya mamluks were housed there in the Al-Rawdah Castle which was commisioned by Ayyubid Sultan as-Salih Ayyub.

From the Bahriyya and Salihiyya many emirs arose, thereby significantly increasing the mamluk influence within the Ayyubid power apparatus. In the end, these emirs from al-Malik al-Salih’s own entourage eventually usurped Ayyubid power after the death of al-Malik al-Salih.

The Ayyubid loss to the Crusaders at the Battle of Mansurah in 1250 CE (in modern-day Mansourah, Egypt) essentially made official the mamluk usurping of power as they now controlled the sultanate itself, despite the Crusaders not being able to properly make use of their victory.

This was a battle fought from 8 to 11 February 1250 CE, between the Crusaders led by Louis IX (King of France), and Ayyubid forces led by Sultana Shajar al-Durr (wife and then widow of as-Salih Ayyub) and her Vizier Fakhr ad-Din ibn al-Shaykh (who served as a diplomat to the father of as-Salih Ayyub and brother of Salahuddin: Sultan al-Kamil and) who died in this Battle of Mansurah).

Shajar al-Durr later married al-Malik al-Mu'izz Izz al-Din Aybak al-Jawshangir al-Turkmani al-Salihi or simply Izz al-Din Aybak (Emir Aybak), who then became Sultan Aybak: the first ever Mamluk Sultan and the first Sultan of the Bahri line of Mamluks, as Shajar al-Durr abdicated upon her marriage.

Thus, commenced the Mamluk State of Egypt & Syria and heralded the end of the Ayyubid Dynasty.

Burji Dynasty/Circassian Mamluks (al-Mamalik al-Sherkes): 1382-1517 CE

The second phase of the Mamluk Sultanate was known as the Burji or Circassian Dynasty (Dawlat al-Jarākisa/al-Mamalik al-Sherkes), and it ruled from 1382 CE till the end of the Mamluk State in 1517 CE (135 years). The Burji Dynasty of the Mamluk Sultanate was of Caucasian/Circassian origins in contrast to the Bahri Dynasty which was of Turkic origins.

Circassia (aka Cherkessia) was a historical region in the North Caucasus along the northeast shore of the Black Sea. It was conquered and occupied by Russia during the Russian invasion of Circassia which began in 1763 and which came into Russian occupation by 1864 CE. This resulted in much of the Circassian people either being exiled from the region or being massacred in what is known as the Circassian genocide.

Many Circassians ended up moving to Istanbul/Constantinople, then part of the Ottoman Caliphate. Ottoman dynastic members around this time period also married people from Circassia and surrounding areas like Abkhazia. For example, Ottoman Sultan-Caliph Abdulhamid II was married to Bidar Kadin who was from Abkhazia, whilst his mother Tirimüjgan Kadın hailed from Circassia as well as his step-mother Rahime Perestu Sultan (the last ever Valide Sultan of the Ottoman Dynasty).

In 1377 CE, a revolt broke out in modern-day Syria and spread all the way to Egypt and by 1382 CE, the Circassians Al-Malik Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Barquq (Barquq) and Barakah took over the Mamluk government whereby Barquq was proclaimed the new Mamluk Sultan. This ended the Bahri line of Mamluk Sultans (a total of 25 Sultans) and heralded the beginning of the Burji/Circassian line of Mamluk Sultans.

Their reign was not straight smooth-sailing though as it was interrupted twice. First, in 1389 CE by the last ever Bahri Mamluk Sultan - Al-Salih Salah Zein al-Din Hajji II or Hajji II - whose first reign as Mamluk Sultan was ended by the Burji Dynasty itself in 1382 CE, after the aforementioned revolt that spread all the way to Egypt.

Sultan Hajji II though only managed to rule for a brief period of time (in 1389 CE) before falling hostage to Sayf ad-Din Barquq, who then began his second reign as Mamluk Sultan (1390-1399 CE).

The second time the Burji Mamluk reign was disrupted was by the Abbasids themselves, who for the vast majority of their ‘reign’ under the Mamluks (both Bahri & Burji) were ceremonial and symbolic rulers.

That is until Abu’l-Fadl Abbas Al-Musta'in Billah: the 10th Abbasid Caliph of Cairo. Al-Musta’in Billah who was Caliph from 1406 CE to 1414 CE, reigned as Mamluk Sultan for a short period of 6 months in 1412 CE. The previous Mamluk Sultan, Al-Nasir Faraj/Nasir-ad-Din Faraj aka Faraj ibn Barquq (son of the aforementioned Mamluk Sultan Barquq) was defeated during his campaign in the Levant against rebellious amirs/emirs (governors) of Aleppo and Tripoli, and this resulted in chaos within the Mamluk domains.

Faraj was forced to surrender his position as Sultan and after differing amongst themselves, the various Mamluk officals anointed Al-Musta’in as Sultan.

Al-Musta’in though was reluctant to accept this offer and only agreed after having obtained assurance from the Mamluks that he would retain his position as Caliph in the event that he was deposed as Sultan.

This assurance was not kept though, and after realising the extent that Al-Musta’in was going to secure and enforce his position as Sultan, he was not only deposed as Sultan but replaced as Caliph. This in effect is viewed as a failed attempt to initiate an Abbasid revival.

The Mamluks of Shaam & Misr (Levant & Egypt) would thereby rule until 1516/1517 CE when they were defeated by the Ottomans (during the reign of Sultan Selim I) in the Battle of Marj al-Dabiq in August 1516 CE, resulting in much territorial loss in the ‘Middle East’ for the Mamluk State.

The Ottomans would later take the Mamluk captial city of Cairo in January 1517 CE. The Ottomans and Mamluks had tense relations and even conflict some many years prior and the Ottomans came to view the Mamluks as problematic, as they felt they were far too friendly with the Shia Safavid Dynasty who were initiating rebellions in Ottoman territories (both a geopolitical and religious threat since the Ottomans were orthodox Sunni Muslims).

Sultan Selim himself marched on Ottoman Istanbul some years prior (1512 CE) and (peacefully) deposed his father - Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II - as he believed his father did not properly recognise nor put into action anything meaningful to deal with the Safavids.

With the opening (conquest) of much of the Middle East/Western Asia in 1516/1517 CE, this immediately made the Ottoman State into a majority-Muslim state as its initial territories lay in much of Southern Europe/the Balkans, which meant the early Ottoman State was a majority-Christian state (much of its inhabitants were not Muslim). This fact of the citizenry of the Ottoman State also disproves/disproved the idea that Muslims had spread and forced Islam onto peoples by the sword.

With the Ottomans taking Cairo and other major Muslim cities like Makkah, Madinah, Jerusalem & Damascus, this not only ended the Mamluk Dynasty but ended the Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo and heralded the Caliphate of the Ottomans, and thus, Sultan Selim I (the 9th Ottoman Sultan) became the first ever Ottoman Caliph and would also be known as Ottoman Sultan-Caliph Selim I.

And though the Mamluk State had collapsed, the Uthmani Khilafah retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and so the Burji Mamluks retained some of their influence, though as vassals of the Ottomans.

Who was Mamluk Sultan Baybars?

Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari or al-Salihi - or more commonly known as Baybars/Baibars - was the fourth Sultan of the Bahri Dynasty of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt & Syria.

He was of Turkic Kipchak origin (born around the year 1223 CE and died in July 1277 CE (Muharram 676 AH), in Damascus, modern-day Syria) and succeeded the famous al-Malik al-Muzaffar Sayf ad-Din Qutuz or simply Qutuz: the Mamluk Sultan who presided over the famous and now oft-mentioned Battle of Ain Jalut (of which Baybars presided as a commander).

There is debate amongst historians about Baibar’s exact birthplace, with some claiming he was born north of the Black Sea, in Crimea; others claiming he was born in the Steppe of the Kipchaks (located today between the Volga and Ural rivers in modern-day Russia), whilst modern-day Kazakhstan is also touted as another possible location.

As it pertains to Sultan Qutuz, he himself was said to be a Turkic Prince from Persia who ended being captured by the Mongols during the fall of the Khwarazmian Dynasty. He was later taken to Damascus and was sold to an Egyptian merchant, who then later sold him to the aforementioned Izz al-Din Aybak (Sultan Aybak).

According to some sources, Qutuz claimed that his original name was Mahmud ibn Mamdud and that he descended from the penultimate Khwarazmian Sultan Ala ad-Din Muhammad II (father of Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu mentioned above).

In his native Turkic language, Baybars’ name is said to mean “great panther”. Baybars was described as a tall man with a powerful voice, and had broad shoulders; slim legs; blue eyes and olive skin (Reference: The Enclyopedia of Islam via Brill).

Within the Kipchak ethnic group (group of Turkic nomads and pastoralists that lived in the Eurasian Steppe), Baybars belonged to the Barli tribe. Due to invading Mongol armies - during Baybars’ childhood - they settled within the domains of the Second Bulgarian Empire (medieval Bulgarian state that existed between 1185 and 1422 CE).

This migration apparently did not save the Barli Tribe from the invading Mongol armies and Baybars was said to have witnessed the killing of both of his parents at the hands of said Mongols around the year 1242 CE. Logically, this incident created resentment within Baybars for the Mongols.

Baybars was then said to have been sold into slavery within the domains of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum (modern-day Turkiye).

He was then reportedly later purchased by a notable & wealthy Egyptian by the name of Ala al-Din Idikin al-Bunduqdari in modern-day Syria, who then brought him to Cairo.

Around the year 1247 CE, Baybars came under the possession of Ayyubid Sultan al-Ṣāliḥ Najm al-Dīn Ayyūb (nephew of Salahuddin) after al-Bunduqārī was arrested.

And thus, Baybars entered into the service of the Ayyubids - who as mentioned prior - had power taken from them from these ‘slave soldiers’ who became the Mamluks of Egypt & Syria.

Under the control of the Ayyubid Sultan, Baybars was sent to the aforementioned Al-Rawdah Island/Roda Island (Jazīrat ar-Rawdah) (island located on the Nile River in Cairo) to train for the Ayyubid army and be a part of the Salihiyya (personal guard of the Ayyubid Sultan). He quickly proved his skill and then quickly moved on to be head of the Salihiyya.

He was also said to have fought in the Ayyubid army during the victorious Battle of Hiribya (Battle of La Forbie) in 1244 CE (The Sixth Crusade). This Ayyubid victory was said to have also led to the call for the Seventh Crusade led by King Louis IX of France (the Seventh Crusade also came to be known as Crusade of Louis IX to the Holy Land).

Post the Battle of Hiribya, Baybars quickly rose through the ranks and showed his skill in battle. He ended becoming a military commander of the Ayyubid army and was the chief military commander at the aforementioned Battle of Mansurah against King Louis IX’s army in 1250 CE.

Baybars later got involved in the political side of things and was said to have played a role in the Mamluk overthrowing of the Ayyubid Dynasty.

There is difference of opinion but it is speculated that Baybars was the one who killed Qutuz. This occurred post-Ain Jalut because even though the Battle of Ayn Jalut did not ultimately end Mongol intervention into modern-day Syria, it was a psychological win for the Muslim psyche.

It put an end to the feeling of Mongol invisibility; it also sent a message beyond the borders of modern-day Syria and simultaneously brought much respect to those involved in the aforementioned battle, particularly the various commanders, etc, (with Baybars being one of them).

With this new-found appreciation and respect, many of the Mamluk commanders expected great rewards, but there was a sentiment of Qutuz showing favouritism to certain individuals, and with Baybars not given rule of Aleppo and many others disappointed with Qutuz, it was said they planned to depose Qutuz.

Following Qutuz’s passing, Baybars was named as his successor, particularly by those who felt favourable towards him, and so Baybars came to the Mamluk Sultanic office on 17 Dhul Qa’dah, 658 AH / 24 October, 1260 CE in Cairo.

Sultan Baybars was recognised as one of the most powerful Mamluk Sultans and one of the most powerful Sultans of all time. He also had much acclaim for his military prowess and leadership as well as his diplomatic skills (which we seen when he makes contact with the Muslim Mongol leader: Berke Khan of the Golden Horde as well as contact the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperor: Michael VIII Palaeologus).

Sultan Baybars is also regarded as the architect of the imperial nature of the Mamluk State. He spent his early years of ruling by enlarging the Mamluk military insitution and was said to have doubled if not tripled the cavalry troops who had served his predecessor Qutuz.

Baybars did try to promote a dynastic succession to the Mamluk State by selecting his young son Berke as co-sultan but the various senir amirs dimissed Berke and reverted back to the methodology of merit and negotiation.

Baybars during his own reign though managed to navigate these senior amirs - who very much regarded themselves as coequals with rights to control over the state & its assets - and solidified his position as Sultan and stabilised the Mamluk State.

As it pertains to foreign policy, he was also quite shrewd in his approach to various external powers, both Muslim & non-Muslim.

Post-Ain Jault, he does not immediately set out to exploit the Mamluk victory against the Mongol Ilkhanids but instead proposes a form of coexistence with the Mongols, possibly and very likely to halt any possible collusion between the Mongols and European powers.

Simulatenously, Baybars also allowed and gave refuge to Mongols who rebelled against the Ilkhanids due to internal disputes and/or rivalries. These Mongol figures would end up figuring prominently in Mamluk politics, both at that time and in the future.

It was also under Baybars’ reign that one of the Abbasids’ descendants - Abul Qasim Ahmad who claimed to be an uncle of the last Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad - who escaped the Mongol sacking of Baghdad in 1258 CE, came to Cairo to seek refuge.

Abul Qasim Ahmad was hereby in 1261 CE appointed as Abbasid Caliph (though was just a ceremonial position) and thus began the Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo.

Though they had little power, these Abbasid Caliphs lended much legitimacy to the Mamluk State and also rested the angst amongst the ordinary folk as there was some sentiment on the ground that the Mamluks had overthrown a legimate dynasty (i.e. Ayyubids).

Mamluk dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean also began as a result of the reign of Baybars as well as simultaneously reinforcing the union of modern-day Egypt & Syria (started from the Ayyubids). This solidified Mamluk power in the region as the most powerful Muslim state, and the aforementioned Abbasid revival (so to speak) under the Mamluks, was very much an icing on the cake.

Domestically, he also brought increased prosperity to Mamluk society. Professor Ovamir Anjum in his talk titled “What is Ummatics” at Cambridge University (for the Cambridge University Islamic Society), mentions that post the Mongol sacking of Baghdad and the Battle of Ayn Jalut, “the Mamluk period became - oddly and strangely, but surely - one of the most productive periods of Islamic scholarship” ranging from Islamic theology, Islamic legal thought, Islamic jurisprudence & Islamic history.

His reign from a military perspective also paved the way for the end of the Crusader presence in the Levant (Shaam). His skill in knowing when to employ the military and when to emply diplomacy also helped greatly in expanding the domains of the Mamluk Sultanate.

Below are a list of some military campaigns that Baybars participated in (before & after coming to the Sultanate):

• The Battle of Ayn Jalut: In September 1260 CE, Baibars was a commander in the Mamluk army who were victorious against the Mongol Ilkhanids at the famous and now oft-repeated Battle of Ain Jalut, near Al Quds (Jerusalem), during the reign of Sultan Qutuz.

• Opening of Crusader strongholds: Baybars & the Mamluks opened many cities - between 1263 to 1271 CE - of Crusader strongholds in the region:

  – The Opening of Arsuf in 1265 CE:

  The opening of Arsuf by the Mamluks and the surrender of the city by the Knights Hospitalers in 1265 CE

  – The Opening of Safed in 1266 CE:

  In July 1266 CE, Sultan Baybars opened the town of Safed from the Knights Templars in July 1266 CE. Safed had been opened by Sultan Salahuddin in 1188 CE, but the Kingdom of Jerusalem took back the town in 1240 CE.

  – Mamluk opening of Cilician Armenia and Akka (Acre):

  Later in 1266 CE, Sultan Baibars opened Cilician Armenia from the Mongols. Sultan Baybars had also opened and gained control over the city of Akka (Acre) by the following year.

  – Opening of Antakiyah (Antioch) and Yafa (Jaffa):

  Baibars opened Antakiyah (Antioch) and Yafa (Jaffa) in 1268 CE. He thereafter also opened Asqalan (Ashkelon/Ashqelon) on and Qisarya (Caesarea) soon after.

  – Final actions against the Crusaders:

  By the end of 1271 CE, the Crusaders had been effectively defeated by the Mamluks, and they would not take back any of the lands opened by Sultan Baybars during his lifetime.

• Mamluk opening of Hashhashin strongholds:

  By 1273 CE, Sultan Baybars was said to have eliminated Hashhashin presence from modern-day Syria. The Hashhashin or Order of Assassins were a sub sect of Nizari Shiism founded by Hassan Sabbah, and were known for making numerous assassinations.

• Battle of Elbistan against the Mongol Ilkhanids in 1277 CE:

  Sultan Baybars’ main priority was to ensure the Mongol armies were kept out of the region and hence his alliance with Berke Khan of the Mongols of the Golden Horde.

  In April 1277 CE, Baybars and the Mamluks met and were victorious against the Mongol Ilkhanids in Anatolia (Mongol-controlled Seljuk Sultanate of Rum) at Elbistan (Albistan).

Sultan Baybars reigned for around 17 years (1260-1277 CE) with his passing in Damascus in 1277 CE (Allah have mercy on him). He was buried under the dome of the Al Zahiriyyah Library (Madrasa al-Zahiriyya): an Islamic library, madrasah and mausoleum.

Sultan Baybars also had construction of a masjid/mosque begin in 1267 CE which came to be known as the Mosque/Masjid of al-Zahir Baybars (located in Cairo, modern-day Egypt.

Sultan Baibars had the construction of the mosque administered by his Vizier/Wazir Ali bin Muhammad bin Sadid el-Din bin Muslim bin Hanna bin Bahaa el-Din Abu el-Hasan el-Masry or commonly known as Bahaa el-Din bin Hanna.

Bahaa el-Din bin Hanna was the last Vizier of the Ayyubid Dynasty and later went on to serve the Mamluk Dynasty in the same capacity. It was during Sultan Baybars’ reign that Bahaa el-Din really rose to prominence and came to be known as one of the most powerful & influential figures within the Mamluk State and society.

The great scholar of Shafi’i fiqh (Shafi’i jurisprudence) who was known as Sultan al-Ulama - Izz ad-Din Abdul Aziz bin Abdus Salam al-Sulami al-Shafi’i - praised Bahaa el-Din for his decisiveness and righteousness.

The Mamluks, Sultan Baybars & Dirilis Ertugrul

Dirilis Ertugrul has very few mentions of the Mamluks or Sultan Baybars but we see some brief mentions of both in Season 5 in the context of war against Mongols, and this is definitely a historical reality.

Season 5 of Dirilis Ertugul itself was set in the time period of around 10 years after the Battle of Kose Dag in 1236 CE between the Seljuks of Rum and the Mongol Ilkhanids, and so Mongol presence was definitely in Anatolia and threatening the stability of Muslim lands south of Anatolia (Damascus, Aleppo, etc).

In Bolum/Episode 128 (Season 5 Episode 7), we see Ertugrul Bey meeting with the secret White Beards organisation. In this meeting, Ertugrul Bey puts forward the idea of building an alliance between Berke Khan of the Golden Horde and Sultan Baybars of the Mamluks.

The alliance of Berke Khan and Sultan Baybars in of itself is a historical reality as discussed previously, but suggesting that Ertugrul Bey was involved in the organisation of the battle against the Mongols and their alliance is very much exaggerated, if not untrue (this is where the series tries to give more importance to Ertugrul Bey than was actually true).

That withstanding, this isn’t to discount the very real likelihood of Ertugrul having encounters with Mongols and even attempting to assist the various Muslim powers like the Mamluks, even if indirectly.

To conclude, in Bolum/Episode 148 of Dirilis Ertugrul, we again see the White Beards and Ertugrul Bey in another meeting, but this time discussing Berke Khan & the Golden Horde as well as Hulagu Khan, the Mongol Ilkhanids and Hulagu’s spy Arikbuka.

The Mongols and their tying into the series Dirilis Ertugrul will be the subject of discussion for my next article in this series of articles Insha’Allah.

And Allah knows best.